Gerund is a noun form of verb and it can stay with genitive (possessive) or accusitive case when situated in a sentence. It denotes events or states and stays either as a complement or subject in a clause. In other words, gerund, being a noun form of verb, occurs in nominal positions, and performs the role of subject or object in clauses. As gerund plays the role of a noun, it can be introduced with determinants like ‘the’. This post has been composed to provide the learning writers with the necessary information regarding gerunds. This information can help them use gerunds competently in their advanced writing.
1. Nominal Gerunds, Verbal Gerunds, and Participles
Gerunds can be distributed into two classes: nominal gerunds (modifiable by adjectives) and verbal gerunds (modifiable by adverbs). For example:
- Saeeda likes shoping.
In this example, shopping is the complement (object) of the verb likes and as it has ‘—ing’ form, it is a gerund. Further, we can add the before shopping and also an adjective (costly) before it, i.e., Saeeda likes [the costly shopping]. However, it cannot take direct object (e.g., Saeeda likes shopping the dress). From here it can be concluded that shopping is a nominal gerund. If a gerund, i.e. shopping takes a direct object, e.g., Saeeda likes [rapidly [the shopping cosmatics], shopping is a verbal gerund.
The verbal gerund has two types in terms of its subject. It takes either implicit (PRO) subject or accusative one. For example:
- They took tea before (…) going out. [implicit subject]
- Sadaf was aware of him following her. [accusitive subject]
The nominal and verbal gerunds cannot be mixed together. They cannot act like a noun and like a verb at the same time. For example, if ‘the’ is added in front of ‘–ing’, it cannot be modified by adverb. On the other hand, if an adjective is added, it needs a preposition. In short, both gerunds cannot act like a noun and like a verb simultaneously. For example:
Incorrect: The quickly writing is his habit.
Correct: The quick writing of the essay caused many errors.
Participles, verbal gerunds, and nominal gerunds denote events, and take arguments (i.e., subjects or objects as does a verb). Participles, verbal gerunds and nominal gerunds take overt subjects. These subjects in the case of participles are nominal and in case of verbal gerund and nominal gerund are genitive. Further, participles and verbal gerunds take accusitive objective. Furthermore, participle and verbal gerund take adverbial modification whereas nominal gerund take article and adjectival modification. Still further, participles take reduced relatives.
- They put on shoes before (…) going out. [missing subject]
- They put on shoes before they went out.
- Saeeda was aware [of him following her]. [Accusitive]
- Saeeda was aware of being followed by someone.
By changing the object of the verb, we can make the verb to imply an alternative meaning of the phrase.
- Shaheen likes writing. (all types of writing).
- Shaheen likes writing [of modern novelists.] (agent of the verb write has been elaborated)
In example (b), the nominal gerund writing has noun pattern and denotes an event with the preposition ‘of’ to link it to the direct object. Here we can conclude that nominal gerunds are actually event nouns.
2. Gerund and Infinitive Clauses
Gerund and infinitive clauses are non-finite clauses. In the following table, finite and non-finite clauses are set to correspond each other so that the difference between them becomes clear.
| Finite Clauses | Non-finite Clauses |
| 1. He spends from his own pocket. (declarative) | 1. It is rare for him to spend from his own pocket. (Infinitival) |
| 2. Spend from your own pocket. (Imperative) | 2. He evades spending from his own pocket. (gerund-participle) |
| 3. We expect that he spend from his own pocket. (Subjunctive) | 3. This is the amount spent by him. (Past Participle) |
3. Constructions that take only a gerund phrase
The constructions that take a gerund phrase only are the ones where the gerund phrase is extraposed. For example:
| Only gerund phrases are possible. | Phrases other than gerund phrases are not possible. |
| a. It’s/There’s no use medicating her anymore. | a. *It is no use a big protest. |
| b. There’s no point bringing her anything. | b. *There is no point anything new. |
| c. It’s scarcely worth (while) him/his going abroad. | c. *It is scarcely worthwhile a lot of attention. |
| d. It’s pointless purchasing so much sweets. | d. *It’s pointless storage of groceries. |
The verbs like prevent, abstain, etc., take only a gerund phrase after their complement preposition. For example:
i. a. We could not prevent the snake from entering our house.
b. *We could not prevent the snake’s entry to our house.
ii. a. The leader abstained from criticizing his followers.
b. *The leader abstained from his followers’ criticism.
4. Event Gerundives
There are two types of event gerundive, i.e., genitive gerundive and accusative gerundive. It is important to note that event gerundive is a sentence in structure but is noun phrase (NP) in essence. For example:
- I was astonished at his snorting in the office. [Genitive gerundive]
- I was astonished at him snorting in the office. [Accusative gerundive]
In example (a), genitive gerundive is an NP (i.e., non-sentential) and in (b), accusative gerundive is sentential.
5. Genitive Gerundives in Discourse
In academic writing, two notions: demotion of subject and objectivity, are associated with the nature and function of genitive gerundive. On the basis of the morpho-syntactic form of this construction, its action/process-oriented interpretation can be made.
The use of GEN gerundive construction in academic writing is very important. It helps the writer to enable the reader have an objective construal of the event from an external perspective. Further, it helps the writer to demote the subject to a determiner status. This (in discourse-pragmatic terms) is one of the typical cases of backgrounding a piece of information from the narrated events. In short, the use of GEN gerundive provides the look of an objective information that comes from outside evidence. For example:
- The possibility of his being loyal was always highlighted.
*The possibility of him being loyal was always highlighted.
b. On his requesting her to be considerate, Saleema looked soft at her heart.
The use of his in the subject position of gerundives in the above examples shows that the speaker’s self has been objectified and backgrounded. Thus the emphasis stays on the action/process of the event.
5.1 Nouny look of genitive gerundives
Genitive gerundives can give more nouny look when they stay in NP’s N construction. This form of genitive gerundives proves a good source of their formality and objectivity. Besides, this stance is supported by the evidence with the facts related to inverted Wh-cleft. For example:
- This is what the board appreciated my having performed.
*This is what the board appreciated me having performed.
- This is what I remember Shaheen’s having disclosed to the boss last month.
??This is what I remember Shaheen having disclosed to the boss last month.
The examples given above demonstrate that the wh-word stands for objective information which is compatible with genitive version but not with accusative version.
5.2 Cleft focus position of genitive gerundive
When we consider cleft focus position, the genitive gerundive occupies this position freely. But accusative gerundive does not look inclined to do it. For example:
- *It was Shakeel misappropriating public money that shocked his colleagues.
- It was Shakeel’s misappropriating public money that shocked his colleagues.
- It was Kareem’s knowing the location of hard cash that made her upset.
- Was it Shakeel’s having misappropriated public money that his colleagues regretted?
When we use informative-presupposition it-cleft constructions, the focus falls on an anaphoric item (a previously mentioned item) which is commonly marked as a known fact.
5.3 Placement of genitive gerundives in marked focus positions
NP-movement in a sentence can help move genitive gerunds (not accusative gerunds) and thus help place them in marked focus positions. These marked positions are other than the cleft focus positions. For example:
- I was disappointed by Naseer’s going against me in the meeting. (Passive)
- Naseer’s going against me in the meeting, it disappointed me. (Left dislocation)
The event referred to by genitive gerundive has the objectified status. The examples given above indicate this point. When the objectified status of an event is the writer’s target, the genitive gerundive helps him generate an appropriate construction. In short, genitive gerundive sustains the writer in a number of situations. First, when the writer does not want to pronounce himself as the agent of action. Next, he thinks not to emphasize the centrality of his action. Last, he aims at maintaining the coherence of his discourse.
6. Accusative Gerundives in Discourse
Contrary to the genitive gerundives, accusative gerundive helps the writer bring the agent/experience instead of the action/process. For example:
- I am sure you won’t desert your father struggling for life.
- I suppose he could not do it without you enticing him with your gestures.
In these examples, the writer/speaker brings himself to the foreground for winning the reader’s/hearer’s empathy. The words father and you have been highlighted, as it is behavior of the addressees that is the center of the attention. That is why the accusative gerundives follow these actors. Besides, contrary to the genitive gerundives, accusative gerundives constructions fall neither in cleft nor in inverted cleft focus position as both these positions are considered for the objectified pieces of information.
In sum, this post first presents the concepts of nominal gerunds, verbal gerunds and participles and shows difference between them with the help of examples. Second, the differences between gerund clauses and infinitive clauses have been dealt with. Third, the constructions that take only a gerund phrase have been explained. Fourth, the construction of event gerundives has been treated. Finally, the use and significance of genitive gerundives and accusative gerundives in discourse have been explained. The material in this post is a bit complicated. However, if the learners assimilate it with their earnest effort, this can accomplish them in their advanced writing.
Sources Consulted
Dos Santos (2016)
Hudson, R. (2003)
Yasutake (1993)
